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The mayor was asked to（）his speech in order to allow his audience to raisequestions.

English is an important foreign language to master because it provides ready（）to world scholarship and world trade.

During our first teacher training year, we often visited local schools for the（）of lessons.

The medicine（）his pain but did not cure his illness.

Early last year the company researched the possibility of（）a new late-nightshow.

Mr. Smith became very（）when it was suggested that he had made a mistake.

Lyme disease is caused by bacteria that are（）by deer tick.

Those persons whose religious（）heavily relied on rituals，such as infant bap-tism, were more likely to support the Democrats.

Japan is a（）society of one nationality and a few underrepresented minority groups，such as the ethnic Chinese and Koreans.

A century ago in the United States, when an individual brought suit against a company, public opinion tended to protect that company. But perhaps this phenomenon was most striking in the case of the railroads. Nearly half of all negligence cases decided through 1896 involved railroads. And the railroads usually won.Most of the cases were decided in state courts, when the railroads had the climate of the times on their sides. Government supported the railroad industry; the progress railroads represented was not to be slowed down by requiring them often to pay damages to those unlucky enough to be hurt working for them.Court decisions always went against railroad workers. Mr. Farwell, an engineer, lost his right hand when a switchman’s negligence ran his engine off the track. The court reasoned that since Farwell had taken the job of an engineer voluntarily at good pay, he had accepted the risk. Therefore the accident, though avoidable had the switchmen acted carefully, was a “pure accident”. In effect a railroad could never be held responsible for injury to one employee caused by the mistake of another.In one case where a Pennsylvania Railroad worker had started a fire at a warehouse and the fire had spread several blocks, causing widespread damage, a jury found the company responsible for all the damage. But the court overturned the jury’s decision because it argued that the railroad’s negligence was the immediate cause of damage only to the nearest buildings. Beyond them the connection was too remote to consider.As the century wore on, public sentiment began to turn against the railroads—against their economic and political power and high fares as well as against their callousness （无情）toward individuals.1.What does the word “negligence” mean in the passage?2.Which of the following is NOT true in Farwell’s case?3.What must have happened after the fire case was settled in court?4.The following aroused public resentment EXCEPT（）.5.What does the passage mainly discuss?

The question of whether war is inevitable is one which has concerned many of the world’s great writers. Before considering this question, it will be useful to introduce some related concepts. Conflict, defined as opposition among social entities directed against one another, is distinguished from competition, defined as opposition among social entities independently striving for something which is in inadequate supply. Competitors may not be aware of one another, while the parties to a conflict are. Conflict and competition are both categories of opposition, which has been defined as a process by which social entities function in the disservice of one another. Opposition is thus contrasted with cooperation, the process by which social entities function in the service of one another. These definitions are necessary because it is important to emphasize that competition between individuals or groups is inevitable in a world of limited resources, but conflict is not. Conflict, nevertheless, is very likely to occur, and is probably an essential and desirable element of human societies.Many authors have argued for the inevitability of war from the premise that in the struggle for existence among animal species, only the fittest survive. In general, however, this struggle in nature is competition, not conflict. Social animals, such as monkeys and cattle, fight to win or maintain leadership of the group. The struggle for existence occurs not in such fights, but in the competition for limited feeding areas and for the occupancy of areas free from meat-eating animals. Those who fail in this competition starve to death or become victims to other species. This struggle for existence does not resemble human war, but rather the competition of individuals for jobs, markets, and materials. The essence of the struggle is the competition for the necessities of life that are insufficient to satisfy all.Among nations there is competition in developing resources, trades, skills, and a satisfactory way of life. The successful nations grow and produce efforts to expand territory at the expense of others, and thus lead to conflict. It cannot be said that war-like conflict among nations is inevitable, although competition is.1.In the first paragraph, the author gives the definitions of some term in order to（）2.According to the author, competition differs from conflict in that（）.3.The phrase “function in the disservice of one another” most probably means（）4.The author indicates in the passage that conflict（）.5.The passage is probably intended to answer the question “（）'

For some time past it has been widely accepted that babies—and other creatures—learn to do things because certain acts lead to “rewards”； and there is no reason to doubt that this is true. But it used also to be widely believed that effective rewards, at least in the early stages, had to be directly related to such basic physiological “drives” as thirst or hunger. In other words，a baby would learn if he got food or drink or some sort of physical comfort，not otherwise.It is now clear that this is not so. Babies will learn to behave in ways that produce re- sults in the world with no reward except the successful outcome. Papousek began his studies by using milk in the normal way to “reward” the babies and so teach them to carry out some simple movements，such as turning the head to one side or the other. Then he noticed that a baby who had enough to drink would refuse the milk but would still go on making the learned response with clear signs of pleasure. So hebegan to study the children’s response in situation where no milk was provided. He quickly found that children as young as four months would learn to turn their heads to right or left if the movement “switched on” a display of lights一and indeed that they were capable of learning quite complex turns to bring about this result, for instance, two left or two right, or even to make as many as three turns to one side.Papousek’s light display was placed directly in front of the babies and he made the in- teresting observation that sometimes they would not turn back to watch the lights closely although they would “smile and bubble” when the display came on. Papousek concluded that it was not primarily the sight of lights which pleased them, it was the success that they were achieving in solving the problem，in mastering the skill, and that there exists a fundamental human urge to make sense of the world and bring it under intentional control.1.According to the author, babies learn to do things which（）.2.Papousek noticed in his studies that a baby（）.3.In Papousek’s experiment babies made learned movements of the head in order to（）4.The babies would “smile and bubble” at the lights because . （）.5.According to Papousek, the pleasure babies get in achieving something is a reflec-tion of （）.

To call someone bird-brained in English means you think that person is silly or stu-pid. But will this description soon disappear from use in the light of recent research? It seems the English may have been unfair in associating bird’s brains with stupidity.In an attempt to find out how different creatures see the world, psychologists at Brown University in the USA have been comparing the behaviour of birds and humans. One experiment has involved teaching pigeons to recognize letters of the English alphabet. The birds study in “classrooms”，which are boxes equipped with a computer. After about four days of studying a particular letter, the pigeon has to pick out that letter from several dis- played on the computer screen. Three male pigeons have learnt to distinguish all twenty-six letters of the alphabet in this way.A computer record of the birds’ four-month study period has shown surprising similar- ities between the pigeons’ and human performance. Pigeons and people find the same letters easy, or hard, to tell apart. For example, 92 percent of the time the pigeons could tell the letter D from the letter Z. But when faced with U and V (often confused by English chil-dren) ,the pigeons were right only 34 percent of the time.The results of the experiments so far have led psychologists to conclude that pigeons and humans observe things in similar ways. This suggests that there is something funda- mental about the recognition process. If scientists could only discover just what this recog- nition process is, it could be very useful for computer designers. The disadvantage of a present computer is that it can only do what a human being has programmed it to do and the programmer must give the computer precise, logical instructions. Maybe in the future, though, computers will be able to think like human beings.1.The writer suggests that the expression “bird-brained” might be out of use soon be- cause it is（）2.sychologists have been experimenting with pigeons to find out whether the birds3.U and V are confused by（）.4.There are similarities in observing things by pigeons and humans（）.5.The research may help（）•

There are many reasons for a person planning to do PhD research (for example, new experiences, career preparation, and increased knowledge). Why do you think people should pursue a doctoral degree? Write an essay of no less than 200 words about your opinion on this topic.

As Apple prepares to report what (analysts project) may be the company’s first year-over-year quarterly earnings decline in a decade on Tuesday, it is also grappling with jittery investors and a recent share-price plunge that has wiped about $280 billion off its market capitalization since its stock reached a high of $702. 10 last September.（1） Much of the investor nervousness is rooted in how Wall Street is treating and valuing the Cupertino, Calif., company as a traditional hardware maker. One camp of analysts and some investors said there is strong evidence that Apple should be viewed in a different light: as a software –hardware hybrid.The distinction matters. If it continues to be seen as a hardware business, Apple’s streak — driven by products like the iPhone and iPad — could run out quickly as smartphones and tablets get commoditized and consumer tastes change. （2 ） It is a lesson learned by companies like BlackBerry-maker Research In Motion Ltd., whose tech hardware was quickly eclipsed by products from Apple itself.If Apple is classified as a software-hardware hybrid, the company could be valued more like Internet and software makers that have recurring revenue streams and that often trade at higher price-to-earnings ratios than hardware firms.“The market views Apple as a consumer hardware company tied to product cycles that drive volatile revenue and earnings streams,’’ says Morgan Stanley analyst Katy Huberty. （3 ） But that view isn’t complete, she says, since “Apple customers buy into a brand that offers ease of use similar to companies like Amazon.com or enterprise companies like NetApp.”An Apple spokesman declined to comment ahead of Tuesday’s earning report.With Wall Street categorizing Apple as a hardware maker, investors value the company — which made an astounding $13 billion in profits in the quarter ended in December — at 8. 6 times expected earnings per share for the next 12 months. Investors are currently valuing Hewlett-Packard Co., which made $1.2 billion in profits during its most recent quarter, at a price-to-earnings ratio of 5. 6. Troubled PC maker Dell Inc., whose stock price inflated after signing a buyout deal earlier this year, trades at a P/E ratio of 8. 5.Apple’s gross margins are around 40%, an important-measure of the company’s efficiency at making money. That is roughly twice as high as H-P’s and Dell’s. Apple has characteristics that differ from many other hardware businesses. （4） Its customers often upgrade their Apple products annually, far more frequently than the four-year PC upgrade cycles typically found at tech hardware businesses including Hewlett-Packard or Dell. While H-P and Dell have tried beefing up the enterprise software side of their business, Apple’s operating system and iTunes software is already ubiquitous. （5） Apple also has more than 500 million accounts for its App Store tied to credit cards — and a customer base to sell new services to — giving it a recurring software and services revenue stream. Apple took in revenue of $3. 7 billion from iTunes and other software and services in its last quarter, or 7% of its total revenue.

Recent research from animal behaviorists suggests that “ as the crow flies ” should no longer be taken to mean “the shortest distance between two points. ” Zoologists at Oxford University,（1）conducted an eighteen-month （2） of homing pigeons, have concluded that under some circum- stances ,pigeons follow （3）visual landmarks to find their way home （4） than taking the shor- test, most direct route. （5） for their ability to navigate long distances, homing pigeons use the （6） of the sun and stars, their inbuilt compasses，and perhaps also their sense of smell to direct their flight over long（7） or on a journey for the first time. （8），different factors appear to affect a pigeon’s navigation （9） it is released close to its（10） Animal behaviorists reached this （11）after attaching small global positioning devices to the backs of pigeons and releasing them a few miles from their home. These devices enabled the scientists to（12）the precise location of each pigeon ev- ery second of （13） flight. Each pigeon was tracked for approximately twenty flights from the （14）point. For the first several flights，each bird’s path（15）significantly from the paths it had taken （16）Subsequently，（17），the bird would tend to follow the same path, （18） after flight, even though that path was not always the most direct route home. The scientists concluded that pigeons use a （19） of familiar visual landmarks to find their way when they are near their home rather than rel- ying primarily on compass navigation. Major highways are one （20）landmark. Almost comically, some of the pigeons followed the path of a major highway they could see below them, turning where the road turned, and even following the circular path of the exit ramps.

An analysis of the ideas in the novel compels an analysis of the form of the work, particularly when form and content are as（）as they are in The House of the Seven Gables.

In some cultures the essence of magic is its traditional integrity; it can be efficient only if it has been（）without loss from primeval times to the present practitioner.

Some biologists argue that each specifically human trait must have arisen gradually and erratical-ly, and that it is therefore difficult to isolate definite（）in the evolution of species.

To compensate for the substantial decline in the availability of fossil fuels in future years, we will have to provide at least（）alternative energy source.

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